What Is Emergent Literacy?
The research and theoretical developments of the last decade have
dramatically altered how we view young children's movement into literacy (Teale
& Sulzby, 1986). The term literacy relates to both reading and writing
and suggests the simultaneous development and mutually reinforcing effects of
these two aspects of communication. Literacy development is seen as emerging
from children's oral language development and their initial, often
unconventional attempts at reading (usually based on pictures) and writing (at
first, scribbling) -- hence the term emergent literacy. Within an emergent
literacy framework, children's early unconventional attempts at reading and
writing are respected as legitimate beginnings of literacy.
How Young Children Become Readers and Writers
The research in the area of emergent literacy suggests that the roots of both
reading and writing are established in the oral language experiences of very
young children (Glazer, 1989; Strickland & Feeley, 1991).
Home Experiences
Children learn much about reading and writing as pre-schoolers by observing the
reading and writing that occurs in their families. They then begin to reading
and writing as part of their home experiences (Heath, 1983; Taylor, 1983). They
come to realize that the print that is part of their environment communicates
messages that fulfill a variety of important functions.
Modeling Through Storybook Reading
Recent research clarifies the extreme importance of reading storybooks to young
children both at home and in school. Very early, children begin to imitate that
reading -- at first by relying exclusively on picture clues and memory. With
increased experience they begin to focus on the information that print conveys (Snow,
1983; Sulzby, 1985; Teale, 1987).
Early Writing Forms
Research has also shown that young children are strategic in early forms of
writing. They begin by using scribbles and progress through increasingly
accurate representations of the relationship between letters and the sounds for
which they stand. As children think about how to represent the sounds of words
through their writing, they are building skills that will be useful for reading
as well (Barnhart, 1986; Dyson, 1985; Teale & Sulzby, 1986).
Concepts, Strategies and Skills Needed to Become Effective Readers
Functions and Value of Print
Perhaps the most important concept that children need to develop is what is
frequently referred to as the functions of print. When children understand this
concept, they have begun to understand that printed language is related to oral
language, that print is a form of communication, and that print and books are
sources of enjoyment and information (Brown, 1991; Heath, 1982; Schicken- danz,
1978; Teale & Sulzby, 1989). Children who do not understand the functions and
value of reading are unlikely to become successful readers.
Oral Language and Listening Skills
Oral language is the critical foundation upon which reading and writing build.
Glazer (1989), Strickland (1991), and Teale and Sulzby (1989) have all discussed
the critical importance of oral language as it relates to beginning reading and
writing. Learning the meanings of thousands of words and developing an
understanding of the way words are ordered to make sense (syntax) are extremely
complex processes that take place in oral language development and transfer to
reading and writing. Cognitive activities, such as understanding
cause-and-effect relationships or chronological order, that are established
through listening and communicated through speaking are the same cognitive
processes used in reading.
All children who enter kindergarten have some foundation of oral language
skills that can serve as a foundation for their reading and writing. Oral
language skills can be expanded and further developed through listening
activities, especially the reading aloud of stories, and eventually through
reading experiences (Galda & Cullinan, 1991; Glazer, 1989).
There is a strong, significant relationship between listening comprehension
and reading comprehension. Listening to stories is an excellent vehicle for
expanding oral language patterns, for extending thinking skills, and for
building vocabulary (Eller, Pappas, & Brown, 1988; Ellery, 1989; Leung &
Pikulski, 1990).
Understandings About Language
To grow as readers and writers, young children must develop other understandings
about language, often referred to as metalinguistic awareness. They must, for
example, develop a concept of what a word is, both printed and spoken, and know
how it is different from numbers, letters, sounds, and sentences. They must
learn that print is read from left to right and from top to bottom (Downing,
1989; Yaden, 1989).
Learning Letter-Sound Associations
To grow as readers and writers, children must also develop an understanding of
what Adams (1990) refers to as the alphabetic principle. When first introduced
to print, children often think that the printed word is a concrete
representation of an object. For example, they expect cat to be a longer
word than mouse because cats are bigger and longer than mice (Ferreiro &
Teberosky, 1982; Schickendanz, 1989). Instead, they need to develop the idea
that spoken words are composed of identifiable sounds and, further, the idea
that letters of the alphabet represent those sounds. In order to develop an
understanding of the alphabetic principle, they must become familiar with letter
forms (Adams, 1990; Barr, 1984; Schickendanz, 1989) and with the idea that
spoken words have identifiable sounds in them -- referred to as the concept of
phonemic awareness (Adams, 1990; Griffith & Olson, 1992; Lundberg, Frost, &
Peterson, 1988; Tunmer & Nesdale, 1985).
Importance of a Rich Literacy Environment
All of these understandings and skills need to develop in classrooms that
present a rich literacy environment, one filled with books, posters, art,
children's work, and so forth (Morrow, 1989).
Appropriate Literature for Young Readers
Guidelines for Literature Choices
Numerous writers and researchers have provided guidelines for the types of
literature that are most appropriate for emergent readers (Brown, 1991; Cullinan,
1989; Holdaway, 1980; Strickland & Feeley, 1991).
The characteristics that are seen as most important:
Interest and Appeal
The literature should be interesting and appealing to young children and use
the lively, interesting language that reflects natural language patterns.
Developmentally Appropriate Themes and Topics
The literature should be about topics and experiences that are familiar to
young children or about topics and experiences that a teacher can help young
children understand without undue difficulty. Selections that are overly
complex or abstract, or that require understanding of complex literary
devices, are not developmentally appropriate.
Predictability
Selections that use predictable text are particularly recommended for
emergent and beginning readers. Some books are predictable because there is
a close association between the illustrations and the text in the book;
others are predictable because of pronounced rhyme; and some are predictable
because of recurring phrases. Predictable texts aid students in their
attempts to recognize words and build their confidence as readers.
Teacher Enthusiasm
Literature about which the teacher is particularly enthusiastic should be
included. Enthusiasm for a book is contagious.
Shared Reading: An Effective Instructional Model
Basis for Shared Reading Model
The shared reading model was developed by Holdaway (1979). It builds from the
research that indicates that storybook reading is a critically important factor
in young children's reading development (Wells, 1986). The storybook reading
done by parents in a home setting is particularly effective (Strickland & Taylor,
1989). However, in school, in most cases, a teacher reads to a group of children
rather than to a single child. The shared reading model allows a group of
children to experience many of the benefits that are part of storybook reading
done for one or two children at home (Ferreiro & Teberosky, 1982; Schickendanz,
1978).
The shared reading model often uses oversized books (referred to as big books)
with enlarged print and illustrations. As the teacher reads the book aloud, all
of the children who are being read to can see and appreciate the print and
illustrations.
Repeated Readings
In the shared reading model there are multiple readings of the books over
several days. Throughout, children are actively involved in the reading (Yaden,
1988). The teacher may pause in the reading and ask for predictions as to what
will happen next. Because many of the books include predictable text, the
children often chime in with a word or phrase. Groups of children or individual
children might volunteer or be invited to read parts of the story. Through
repeated readings and the predictable text, children become familiar with word
forms and begin to recognize words and phrases (Bridge, Winograd, & Haley, 1983;
Pikulski & Kellner, 1992).
Purposes for Rereading
The repeated readings of the same story serve various purposes. The first
reading is for enjoyment; the second may focus on building and extending
comprehension of the selection; a third might focus attention on the interesting
language and vocabulary; a fourth might focus on decoding, using the words in
the selection as a starting point for teaching word identification skills (Yaden,
1989).
Benefits of Shared Reading:
- Rich, authentic, interesting literature can be used, even in the
earliest phases of a reading program, with children whose
word-identification skills would not otherwise allow them access to this
quality literature.
- Each reading of a selection provides opportunities for the teacher to
model reading for the children.
- Opportunities for concept and language expansion exist that would not be
possible if instruction relied only on selections that students could read
independently.
- Awareness of the functions of print, familiarity with language patterns,
and word-recognition skills grow as children interact several times with the
same selection.
- Individual needs of students can be more adequately met. Accelerated
readers are challenged by the interesting, natural language of selections.
Because of the support offered by the teacher, students who are more slowly
acquiring reading skills experience success.
The Role of Writing in Emergent Literacy
Reading and writing are mutually supportive and interactive processes. Good
readers tend to be good writers, and good writers tend to do well in reading (Strickland,
1991; Teale & Sulzby, 1989). Both reading and writing require that the beginning
reader focus on and think about print and the relationship between letters and
sounds.
Both reading and writing introduce children to the elements that are parts of
stories (e.g., characters, settings, conflicts, and resolutions). Familiarity
with story elements contributes to the understanding of stories and to reading
achievement.
Invented/Temporary Spelling
Based on her extensive review of the research, Adams (1990) concludes that
invented spelling promotes the development of beginning reading skills. Chomsky
(1979), Choate and Castle (1989), Cunningham and Cunningham (1992), Ehri (1988),
and Richgels (1987) have also cited the benefits of using invented spelling, now
often referred to as temporary spelling, for reading and writing.
Clarke (1988) compared students who were encouraged to use invented spelling
with those who were not encouraged to use invented spelling in their writing
during the school year. Those encouraged to use invented spelling wrote
significantly longer, more elaborate stories. On posttests these students also
scored significantly higher in spelling and reading.
Clarke's results are significant. They suggest that children who are
encouraged to use invented spelling develop better word analysis skills,
probably because they have had greater opportunities to practice and apply what
they know about letter-sound associations in their writing. These results should
also help to eliminate the fear of some parents and even teachers that children
who use invented spelling become poor spellers. There is no basis in the
research literature for this fear; the evidence, instead, clearly favors the use
of invented spelling.