What is Literature-Based Instruction?
Literature-based instruction is the type of instruction in which authors'
original narrative and expository works are used as the core for experiences to
support children in developing literacy. The types of activities done with the
literature are the natural types of things children and adults would do when
reading and responding to any good book. For example, it is natural to share and
talk about a good book after reading it; it is not natural to answer ten
questions about the book. The teacher's role becomes one of planning and
supporting authentic learning experiences.
Literature-based instruction is much more than giving students quality
literature; it is doing the authentic things with the literature that all
writers and readers would naturally do, and giving students support with these
activities as they need it. As Wells (1990) indicates, children and young adults
develop literacy (reading, writing, thinking) by having real literacy
experiences and getting support from more-experienced individuals, who may be
adults or peers. Research clearly shows that literature-based instruction helps
all students become better readers, writers, and thinkers (Tunnell & Jacobs,
1989).
The Role of the Teacher in Literature-Based Instruction
The role of the teacher in literature-based instruction is one of decision
maker, mentor, and coach. The teacher plans and supports activities that allow
children to do those things one naturally does with literature (Routman, 1991).
This role includes planning themes, helping students activate the appropriate
prior knowledge, and supporting students in reading and responding to the
literature in appropriate ways (Martinez & Roser, 1991). In some instances the
teacher plans and teaches mini-lessons using the literature as a model for
helping students learn a needed strategy or skill (Trachtenberg, 1990). As a
mentor, the teacher serves as a model for reading and writing. By reading aloud
to students, the teacher models language for them. Through shared writing (McKenzie,
1985), the teacher models all aspects of writing -- grammar, usage, and
spelling. By supporting students with such activities as shared reading,
literature discussion circles, and response activities, the teacher plays the
role of coach (Cooper, 1993).
Thematic Organization
Thematic units consist of a series of learning experiences that are focused
on a particular topic, idea, author, or genre; each unit consists of specific
learning or literacy outcomes for students. Several pieces of literature that
support the theme become the basis for major reading and writing experiences
within the theme.
There are several major advantages to using themes:
Learning About Text Structure Across Selections
In order for students to become effective constructors of meaning, they must
learn to understand the differences in narrative and expository texts (Beach
& Appleman,1984; Taylor & Beach, 1984). Thematic organization makes it
possible to arrange several pieces of related literature together to help
students learn to use different text structures as aids to constructing
meaning.
Strategies/Skills Evolve from the Literature
Students learn the strategies and skills of reading and writing by reading
and writing (Wells, 1990). By placing related pieces of literature with
similar characteristics together, it is possible to scaffold (Ibid. page 23)
instruction and gradually release the responsibility for learning to the
students (Pearson, 1985). In the first selection the teacher can provide
heavy support and modeling. In the next selection students can begin to take
control and model what they are learning, still under the teacher's guidance
or coaching. Finally, students use the last selection to model and apply
what they have learned. Reading the literature provides models for the
strategies and skills. By encountering several related pieces of literature,
students get repeated modeling and practice with the same types of
strategies and skills. This is what Walmsley and Walp (1990) call a skills
through application approach.
Building Connections and Relationships
Thematic organization helps to account for the concepts of schema theory and
prior knowledge. By having related, focused literature, students are able to
build connections and relationships about a given theme, which is how one
develops prior knowledge and uses it to construct meaning (Anderson &
Pearson, 1984).
Provides Models for Reading and Writing
Children learn to read and write together (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). A thematic
organization allows reading and writing to be taught and developed together
as readers and writers naturally learn. By having themes with several pieces
of the same type of literature, students have models to use in their writing.
For example, if students are reading several well-formed stories with very
strong character descriptions, their writing can focus on the writing of
stories with strong character descriptions; the exact topic of the student's
writing, however, should be selected by the student (Graves, 1983).
Efficient Use of Classroom Time
A thematic organization also makes it possible to use classroom time more
efficiently by focusing on a variety of curricular areas across the theme
(Pappas, Kiefer, & Levstik, 1990; Walmsley & Walp, 1990). Teachers are
constantly faced with the dilemma of having too many things to teach and not
enough time to teach them. By having a strong thematic organization,
teachers are better able to provide students with learning experiences that
make more efficient use of their time and match the way students actually
learn.
Supports Constructing Meaning
Overall, the major advantage of focused themes is that they make it possible
for students to more effectively construct meaning by reading related
authentic selections and building connections among them.
Responding to Literature
Responding to literature is the way in which one reacts to something that has
been read or listened to (Cooper, 1993). This process begins before reading as
one thinks about what is to be read and continues during and after reading (Martinez
& Roser, 1991). Rosenblatt (1938/1976; 1978) has contended for many years that
individuals construct their own meanings by transacting with the text. When
response activities are the natural things one does with texts that have been
read or listened to, they help students develop deeper understandings and help
them relate what they have read to their own personal experiences (Gambrell,
1986; Hickman, 1983). It is through this process that individuals learn to
construct meaning or comprehend (Cullinan, Harwood, & Galda, 1983).
Response activities teach children to read and write in several ways:
Relates Ideas to Own Experiences
Response activities provide students with the opportunities to relate
narrative or expository text to their own personal experiences (Martinez &
Roser, 1991). Through this personal transaction with the text, students
formulate their own meanings and develop their overall abilities to
construct meaning (Cullinan, Harwood, & Galda, 1983; Eeds & Wells, 1989). By
responding to literature, students see models of writing that they will
ultimately incorporate into their own writing (Dressel, 1990).
Types of Response
Researchers have found that readers respond to literature in a variety of
ways -- by retelling, summarizing, analyzing, and generalizing (Applebee,
1978). Very young children are able to respond in these ways on a very
simple level (Many, 1991). As students become more experienced readers and
writers, they develop more sophisticated abilities to construct meaning by
analyzing and evaluating literature (Kelly & Farnan, 1991). Writing is one
form of responding to literature (Harste, Short, & Burke, 1988). By giving a
written response to literature, students are learning to construct meaning
through writing; they are further developing their ability to think
critically (Tierney & Shanahan, 1991).
Teacher/Student Modeling
It is important for the teacher to model different types of responding
behaviors for students (Martinez & Roser, 1991). For example, the teacher
might show students how to ask good questions about a book, make an oral
comparison for students, or give an oral summary of a book. Through these
procedures, the teacher is also modeling the constructing of meaning through
response activities (Roser & Martinez, 1985; Cochran-Smith, 1984). When
children have opportunities to discuss books that have been read, they are
also modeling responding for each other as well as modeling the construction
of meaning (Eeds & Wells, 1989).
Useful Instructional Strategies for Literature-Based Instruction
There are many different strategies that research has shown are effective in
literature-based instruction (Cooper, 1993). These include scaffolding of
instruction, modeling, cooperative learning, student choices, self-initiated
reading and writing, using different modes of reading, activation of prior
knowledge, and student responses to literature.
Scaffolded Instruction
Scaffolded instruction is a concept that has grown out of research on how
individuals learn (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978). This concept
is based on the idea that at the beginning of learning, students need a great
deal of support; gradually, this support is taken away to allow students to try
their independence. This is what Pearson (1985) called the gradual release of
responsibility. If students are unable to achieve independence, the teacher
brings back the support system to help students experience success until they
are able to achieve independence (Cooper, 1993).
The concept of support in scaffolded instruction is much broader than the
modeling and teaching of strategies and skills; this is only one part of the
scaffolding process. Providing support takes place in a number of ways - the way
in which the selections are organized in a theme, the amount of prior knowledge
activation that is provided, the way in which the literature is read by the
students, and the types of responses students are encouraged to make.
Modeling
Modeling has been shown to be a vital part of helping students learn the process
of constructing meaning and of helping them learn the various strategies and
skills involved in this process (Bandura, 1986). Modeling takes place first
through the literature itself (Walmsley & Walp, 1990) and the way it is
organized in thematic units. Modeling of specific strategies and skills is also
provided by the teacher for those students who need it. This is done by using
literature that has been read as models to show the use of strategies and skills
(Walmsley & Walp, 1990). These lessons are known as mini-lessons and they may be
formal or informal (Cooper, 1993). Modeling by the teacher is also done through
reading aloud (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985), through
demonstrating response activities and discussions (Martinez & Roser, 1991), and
through shared writing (Cooper, 1993). Students also provide modeling for each
other through cooperative learning.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is also a very effective instructional strategy that works
well in literature-based instruction (Slavin, 1987). Students learn to read,
write, and think by having meaningful engagements with more experienced
individuals (Wells, 1990). Many times these individuals may be their peers.
Having Choices
Having choices in learning to read and write helps students meet their own
individual needs (Johnston & Allington, 1991). By giving students options to
choose from in what they read, how they read, and how they respond to a piece of
literature, we allow them to actively construct their own meanings (Martinez &
Roser, 1991).
Independent Reading and Writing
Self-initiated or independent reading and writing are also important
instructional strategies to use in literature-based instruction.
Modes of Reading
The term modes of reading refers to the different ways literature may be
read -- aloud by the teacher, shared, guided by the teacher, cooperatively, or
independently (Cooper, 1993). By changing the modes of reading used for
different students, we are able to scaffold instruction and provide different
levels of support for students in order to make them successful in reading a
piece of literature (Cooper, 1993; Cullinan, 1992; Tunnell & Jacobs, 1989).
Prior Knowledge Activation
Activating prior knowledge is another instructional strategy that is important
in literature-based instruction (Cooper, 1993). Many different strategies can be
used in activating prior knowledge; most of these strategies help students
become independent in activating their own prior knowledge. Research on schema
theory and prior knowledge has clearly shown that students construct meaning by
using their prior knowledge to interact with the text (Anderson & Pearson,
1984). A thematic organization in which themes are carefully developed with
related pieces of literature also supports the activation and development of
prior knowledge; by reading several related selections, students build on their
prior knowledge from previous selections as they read the next selection.
Responses to Literature
Responses to literature are also important to literature-based instruction (Martinez
& Roser, 1991). By encouraging and allowing students to respond to literature,
we promote the active construction of meaning.